Sample 1

The Impact of Globalization

Nowadays we can enjoy the same films, fashions, brands, advertisements and TV channels. The evident difference between countries is disappearing. To what extent do you think the disadvantages overweight the advantages of this?

Globalization creates conditions for widening international exchanges, strengthening mutual understanding between nations, expanding cultural, educational, and scientific cooperation between nations and countries, enjoying the cultural achievements of people around the world which encourages the process of modernization and the enrichment of national culture.

However, these conditions also create the possible danger of diminishing the national culture with a negative impact on the pre123vation of national identity. Through globalization and an open door policy, erroneous concepts and a lowering of ethical standards, a selfish and individualistic lifestyle and harmful cultural products can easily be imported into the country. At present, modern information technology which in the main is controlled by US is hourly and intensively disseminating US ideology, way of life, culture and films across the world. Even US food is promoted so that some people consider globalization as global Americanization.

During the process of economic globalization, inequality between developed and developing countries has been increasing and the gap between the rich and the poor has become wider, most of the result of globalization go to assist developed countries. Globalization does not pose equal interests and risks to all nations. With an overwhelming advantage compared to most of the developing countries in terms of finance and the level of science and technology, developed ca123alist countries control the situation of economic globalization.

For these reasons, globalization is a fierce and complicated struggle in both cultural and ideological fields. We take the initiative in international economic integration but also have to take the initiative in fighting to keep our distinct culture resisting pro-foreign and cross-bred phenomena, and overcoming the psychology of preferring money over ethical values.

Sample 2

The Impact of Globalization

Progress in communication and transport technology during the 20th century has enabled us to overcome geographical boundaries and revolutionize our way of living. The world is now linked to such an extent that a local happening cannot take place without impacting on the international community and vice versa. It is not surprising to find that the great differences between countries, which used to be in almost every sphere of people's life, have become less obvious.

Nowadays we Chinese are sharing the same Hollywood movie as the American, enjoying the same fashionable clothes as the young girls in Paris and even chasing after the same brands as the people all over the world.

Now that American films can be easily accessed to, it goes without saying that people in other countries can have more opportunities to know more about the American culture since films are frequently referred to as the carrier of a particular culture. Thus, some people welcome these decreasing differences among countries without any reservations in the wish to see a better chance to link the cultures among individual countries, which appear to be the greatest merit stemming from it.

But pause and reflect. This kind of chance for communication may not seem so spurring after considering some disheartening facts indicating that the potential demerits may well outweigh the relatively weak merits. To be exact, globalization, in its powerful extension of market principles, by highlighting the culture of economically powerful nations, has created new forms of inequality. Just look at several figures you'll have a more clear idea on this point: 90% of the world's languages are not represented on the Internet; Some 5 countries monopolize the world cultural industries trade and in the field of cinema, for instance, 88 countries out of 185 in the world have never had their own film production. Therefore, it has understandably ignited severe anxiety and confrontation in almost every comparatively powerless country, thereby fostering cultural conflict rather than cultural pluralism.

In a nutshell, this phenomenon, in some sense, depicts what is called "cultural hegemony" by some sociologists and thus contains several disquieting factors which will inexorably destroy the naive wish of some people about a better world where communication are much more easily to handle.

To me March 28th was a lucky day. It was on that particular evening that I found myself at central stage, in the spotlight. Winning the "21st Century·Ericsson Cup" Seventh National English Speaking Competition is a memory that I shall treasure and one that will surely stay.

More important than winning the Cup is the friendship that has been established and developed among the contestants, and the chance to communicate offstage in addition to competing onstage. Also the competition helps boost public speaking in China, a skill hitherto undervalued.

For me, though, the competition is a more personal experience. Habitually shy, I had been reluctant to take part in any such activities. Encouraged by my friends, however, I made a last-minute decision to give it a try. In the course of preparation I somehow rediscovered myself, a truer me.

I found that, after all, I like communicating with other people; that exchanging views can be so much fun—and so much rewarding, both emotionally and intellectually; that public speaking is most effective when you are least guarded; and that it is essential to success in every walk of life.

At a more practical level, I realized knowing what you are going to say and how you are going to say it are equally important. To take the original ideas out of your head and transplant them, so to speak, to that of others, you need to have an organized mind. This ability improves with training.

Yet there should not be any loss or addition or distortion in the process. Those ideas that finally find their way into another head need to be recognizably yours. Language is a means to transmit information, not a means to obstruct communication. It should be lucid to be penetrating.

In China, certain public speaking skills have been unduly emphasized. Will it really help, we are compelled to ask, to bang at the podium or yell at the top of your lungs, if you have come with a poorly organized speech, a muddled mind, and unwillingness to truly share your views?

Above all, the single most important thing I learnt was that as a public speaker, you need to pay attention, first and foremost, to the content of your speech. And second, the structure of your speech: how one idea relates and progresses to another.

Only after these come delivery and non-verbal communication: speed control, platform manner, and so on. Pronunciation is important, yet of greater importance is this: Is your language competent enough to express your ideas exactly the way you intend them to be understood?

I was informed afterwards that I was chosen to be the winner for my "appropriately worded speech, excellent presence and quick-witted response". In so remarking, the judges clearly showed their preference: they come to listen for meaningful ideas, not for loose judgments, nor easy laughters.

Some contestants failed to address their questions head on. Some were able to, but did not know where to stop—the dragging on betrayed their lack of confidence. The root cause was that they did not listen attentively to the questions. Or they were thinking of what they had prepared.

As I said in my speech, "It is vitally important that we young people do more serious thinking ... to take them [issues like globalization] on and give them honest thinking is the first step to be prepared for both opportunities and challenges coming our way". We need to respond honestly.

A competition like this draws talented students from all over the country. And of course, I learnt more things than just about public speaking. Since in the final analysis, public speaking is all about effective communication. And this goes true for all communications, whatever their setting.

And the following is the final version of my speech:

GLOBALIZATION:

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

FOR CHINA'S YOUNGER GENERATION

Thirty years ago, American President Richard Nixon made an epoch-making visit to China, a country still isolated at that time. Premier Zhou Enlai said to him, "Your handshake came over the vastest ocean in the world—twenty-five years of no communication". Thirty years since, China and America have exchanged many handshakes. The fundamental implication of this example is that the need to communicate across differences in culture and ideology is not only felt by the two countries but by many other nations as well.

As we can see today, environmentalists from different countries are making joint efforts to address the issue of global warming, economists are seeking solutions to financial crises that rage in a particular region but nonetheless cripple the world economy, and politicians and diplomats are getting together to discuss the issue of combating terrorism. Peace and prosperity has become a common goal that we are striving for all over the world. Underlying this mighty trend of global communication is the echo of E. M. Forster's words "Only connect!"

With the IT revolution, traditional boundaries of human society fall away. Our culture, politics, society and commerce are being sloshed into one large melting pot of humanity. In this interlinked world, there are no outsiders, for a disturbance in one place is likely to impact other parts of the globe. We have begun to realize that a world divided cannot endure.

China is now actively integrating into the world. Our recent entry to the WTO is a good example. For decades, we have taken pride in being self-reliant, but now we realize the importance of participating in and contributing to a broader economic order. From a precarious role in the world arena to our present WTO membership, we have come a long way.

But what does the way ahead look like? In some parts of the world people are demonstrating against globalization. Are they justified, then, in criticizing the globalizing world? Instead of narrowing the gap between the rich and the poor, they say, globalization enables the developed nations to swallow the developing nations' wealth in debts and interest. Globalization, they argue, should be about a common interest in every other nation's economic health.

We are reminded by Karl Marx that capital goes beyond national borders and eludes control from any other entity. This has become a reality. Multinational corporations are seeking the lowest cost, the largest market, and the most favourable policy. They are often powerful lobbyists in government decision-making, ruthless expansionists in the global market and a devastating presence to local businesses.

For China, still more challenges exist. How are we going to ensure a smooth transition from the planned economy to a market-based one? How to construct a legal system that is sound enough and broad enough to respond to the needs of a dynamic society? How to maintain our cultural identity in an increasingly homogeneous world? And how to define greatness in our rise as a peace-loving nation? Globalization entails questions that concern us all.

Like many young people my age in China, I want to see my country get prosperous and enjoy respect in the international community. But it seems to me that mere patriotism is not just enough. It is vitally important that we young people do more serious thinking and broaden our mind to bigger issues. There might never be easy answers to those issues such as globalization, but to take them on and give them honest thinking is the first step to be prepared for both opportunities and challenges coming our way. This is also one of the thoughts that came to me while preparing this speech.

WHAT DOES GLOBALIZATION TEACH US?

Globalization is not only the very reality or the trend we face now, but also a point of view and a research means for the modern people. But what does globalization teach us?

Firstly, globalization is a kind of human civilization, its development is just a new form of the latter one, and indeed the definition and structure of civilization image constitute the major aspect of globalization in the long run.

Secondly, globalization is human-beings future, and a sound global management is its destination. It offers the global village a common market, a balancing-benefited political sphere and the more & more similar language system.

Thirdly, globalization is closely concerned with China’s modernization depends on how much China can get involved in the mainstream of globalization. So China’s next aim is to walk into its center.

Advantages of Globalization

I have passed the CET-6 English exam, so that I am good enough to give it a shot！ As a junior 3 Chinese student, I can give you my point of view on the advantages of globalization. If you were a university student, you really should do your English homework yourself.

There are numerous advantages to global economy. A major one is being the possibility to increase benefits from the economical development in our nation. The breaking down of global barriers allows companies to benefit from the largest and cheapest workforces, raw materials and technology. For example, many IT programmers actually produce much of their software in China.

Other advantages are that for our Chinese smaller business owners can have opportunities in expanding their companies globally, having more choices when recruiting a workforce. More importantly, they gain an opportunity to target a larger customer base in the world.

Additionally, a global economy would also help in promoting international cooperation and peace. If countries are dependent upon one another's economic success, economical and cultural conflicts among countries would be less likely occurring.

In conclusion, the advantages of globalization not only benefit our Chinese economical development, they also help create a harmonious cultural environment among international business partners.

Last and certainly not least, I am happy to help you with this English argumentative composition. Am I good at English？ Tell me about it. Above of all, I'd like to take every opportunity to practise my English writing. In next semester, I will be a high school student studying in England. Don't be surprised that my English is much better than you. No secret. As a 15-year-old boy, I speak and write in English as often and as much as I can. That is my motto in learning English！

Youth and Globalization

In the recent twelve years, China actively participates in globalization, especially the economic globalization, which has obviously affected many aspects of Chinese youth’s life, such as youth migration, youth employment, youth culture, youth consumption and so on. The profound influence of globalization on youth is determined by the characteristics of both globalization and youth.

Youth—an important force in participating in the economic globalization

In the recent twelve years, China participates in economic globalization to a much larger extent. Chinese government actively engages in the process. From 1995, China has stepped into a new phase of opening-up and participating in the economic globalization. First, enhance free trade policy. Chinese import tax has descended from 35.9% in 1994 to 9.9% in 2006. The overcast rate of Chinese import non-tariff wall also fell from 32.5% in 1996 to under 10% in 2006. Second, utilize oversea capital, resource and technology actively. From 1995 to 2006, China had accumulatively used overseas capital of about US$809.13 billion, which was a huge increase. During the decade China’s import assumed a constant growth trend. The import quantum rose from US$132.08 billion in 1995 to US$ 561.38 billion in 2005. Third, implement the “Go Out” Strategy, participating in international competitions and targeting at international market. Chinese government adopts many measures to encourage enterprises to participate in international competitions. For example, China encourages export through tax rebate, which leads to a quick rise of the export quantum from US$ 148.78 billion in 1995 to US$ 660.1 billion in 2005. With continuous advancement of Chinese enterprises’ competitiveness, they began to invest more and more in establishing factories abroad, which gave an impetus to the export of commodities and labor service. Fourth, enter the World Trade Organization and involving in the world economy all-roundly. With the 15 years persistent efforts China finally became a member of the World Trade Organization, which was a mark of Chinese economy starting to integrate into the world economy all-roundly. Entering the World Trade Organization not only produced profound effect to Chinese economy but also to the development and life of Chinese youth, and lifted the process of the integration of Chinese and world economy ahead to a new level. For about twelve years, the proportion of Chinese foreign trade dependence rate has risen from 40% in 1995 to 65% in 2006, of which the export dependence rate has risen from 21% to 35% and the import dependence rate from 19% to 30%. The remarkably increase of trade dependence rate indicates that the linkage between internal economy and the external is getting closer and closer, and the degree of integration with the world economy increases sharply.

Chinese youth is one of the most important forces of China participating in the process of economic globalization. China is now experiencing times of fast innovation and active involvement in the world economy. The youth are the main adventurer, beneficiary and risk-takers. Youth has their own special advantages in the economic globalization, so that they’ve become one of the most important forces in China involving in the economic globalization. First of all, the educational level of the contemporary Chinese young people has been increased greatly, which lay the basis for their participation in the economic globalization. Secondly, they have a strong consciousness of openness and participation. In 2004, a questionnaire about the employment aspiration of the youth in Shanghai indicated that 10 percent of them consider finding jobs abroad as a choice. Furthermore, for the time being, Chinese youth especially in urban youth are the major beneficiaries in the economic globalization, which promote their participation in this process.

The influence of globalization on the migration and employment of Chinese youth

Globalization greatly changed the situation of Chinese young people’s migration and employment. Because of the rapid development of economy and the process of urbanization, there in China appears a large scale of migration. It is estimated that there were about 80 million farmers moving from rural areas to urban areas for jobs, of which people under 35-year-old occupied 70 percent in 1995. In 2006 the migration expanded from 150 million to even 140 million, the proportion of people under 35-year-old accounted for 70 percent. There are thousands of young people holding a beautiful dream moving from countryside to city in hope of having a brighter future.

The economic globalization stimulated employment, especially providing more opportunities for those competitive young people. In 2005, 12.45 million people were directly employed in foreign-invested enterprises accountings for 4.56% of the total urban employment of the same period. The development of foreign invested enterprises provided Chinese young people many opportunities. Foreign enterprises came to China with capital, talents, management and experiences, offering youth favorable job opportunities. For over a decade, many young people considered working at foreign enterprises especially in multinational corporations as an honor. Globalization brings opportunities for Chinese young people to work abroad. With the linkage between Chinese and the world economy becoming closer and closer, Chinese young people have more opportunities to study and work abroad, and their footprints spread all over the world.

Globalization means intense competition. Chinese young people still bear great pressure of employment although the economy increases rapidly. In recent years, the employment rate of Chinese college graduates presented a downward trend，and the proportion of that in 2005 was 72.6%.

Globalization deeply influences Chinese young people’s study, culture and consumption

The state policy of reform and opening-up and the gesture of actively involving in globalization deeply influence the study, culture and consumption of Chinese youth.

Learning English is important for Chinese youth and they believe that it’s a necessary skill for their further development. From elementary school, English language has become a compulsory course. At the college entrance examination, which is a decisive moment to Chinese young people, English is among the major examinations paralleled with Chinese language and math. Almost all the colleges and universities in China have listed English as a reference for getting the degree. The long-term emphasis and investment have greatly improved the English level of Chinese young people, which is the basis and advantage for their involvement in the globalization.

To study abroad is a short cut for Chinese young people growing up into high-level talent, which is the ideal of many aspired youth. In the recent decade there have been more and more people who have realized their dreams. Not only more and more Chinese youth study abroad but also more and more students return to the motherland and contribute to the development of the country. The numbers of those who study abroad and return to China were 20,381 and 5,750 respectively in 1995. In 2002 the figure increased to 125,179 and 17,945 respectively and that of in 2003 were 117,307 and 20,152. In 2006, the figure is 134,000 and 42,000. From 1978 to the end of 2006, the number of various personnel studying abroad totaled 1,067,000. The returned overseas students totaled 275,000.

Globalization greatly influences the culture and consumption of Chinese young people and makes the two parts tangling together and presenting many new features. Through television, music video, film, especially the internet which is wide spreading in recent years, the entertainment programs made in America and Europe are becoming more and more prevailing. In recent years, the Internet games and television series of some Asian countries, such as Japan and Korea have occupied an important part of Chinese young people’s culture lives. Investigation shows that about 50% of Chinese young students choose European and American popular entertainment programs as their main entertainment. In recent years, the Internet games and TV series of Japan and Korea have become more and more popular in Chinese market among young people. The entertaining trend in the culture and the development of modern media have led to global consumptionism, including China. Many researches and facts indicate that young people both in urban and rural areas obviously show the tendency of consumptionism in the 21st century of China. One of the worrying qualities of young people in today’s China is lacking the conception of moderate consumption. Nowadays, hundreds of millions of teenagers learn the life through television, film, MTV, Internet and Internet games, by which they form their view of the world, view of life and value about what’s right and what’s wrong, consider and confirm the relationship between the society and themselves. Consumption has become a major way of contemporary young people to express and identify themselves. All the above are the deep effects brought by the globalization to Chinese young people.

What need to be pointed out is that young people adapt and annotate global production often by their own culture and experience. Therefore their understandings of globalization are quite different because of the huge discrepancy in their education and the inequality between rich and poor. Therefore some young people have the feeling of alienation, which maybe will result in crime or social conflicts.

Chinese young people concern and review the effect of the globalization

Globalization is both opportunities and challenges to China, the most populous developing country. Chinese government considers that the tendency of economic globalization is deeply influencing many aspects such as global economy, politics and social life. In the process of economic globalization, the status and situation of different countries are very different. Developed countries enjoy the benefit of globalization, while most developing countries are suffering the pain of poverty, which is not only adverse to the development of the world economy but also threatening the peace of the world. We need and all-win economic globalization among all the countries under the rules of equality, fairness and coexistence.

Chinese youth take part in the economic globalization actively. At the same time, they deeply concern with and reflect on the negative effects of globalization, mainly at the following four aspects: First, disparity between rich and poor. The wealth gap is widening between developing country and developed country. This result is opposite to the ideal of global fairness and Justice. Second, environmental deterioration. On one hand China is the factory of the world, on the other hand China becomes a refuse dump where some developed countries dispose of their industrial waste. Chinese youth is worried and discontented about that. Third, the development of national industry. With the rapid growth of foreign enterprises, national industry yielded step by step. Fourth, the inheritance of national culture. Economic globalization brings the cultural globalization. It remains a problem how Chinese youth treat the traditional culture and western culture in the right way and how to face the cultural demand under the background of globalization.

In addition, under the background of globalization, the popular thought of consumption among youth is inconsistent with the lack of per capita resources, which is also an important aspect of the negative effects of globalization.

Section A: Composition

Recently, western fast food restaurant have mushroomed everywhere in all cities and towns in China. It is fashionable for many working couples and school children now to enjoy meals there. Although western fast food is fast, convenient and new to us, I still prefer to eat traditional cooked Chinese dish.

Firstly, western fast food is high in calories. American hamburgers, French fries, Italian pizza, ice cream Sunday, soft drinks such as Coca Cola and so on, are notorious killers of our health, because of their high level of sugar and fat. They may cause heart disease and high blood pressure. Secondly, western fast food is unbalanced in nutrition. Most of the western fast food contains many kinds of meat, without enough vegetables. Protein is necessary for human body, but vitamin is also important. Thirdly, the ways of cooking western fast food is unhealthy. Frying is its main cooking method, while so much oil may cause high fat percentage in blood. Fourthly, people often eat it so fast, which is bad for digestion.

Everything can’t be overly done. Occasionally having the western fast food for a change of taste is not a bad idea.

Section B: Note-writing

April 20, 2008

Dear Helen,

I am very busy in preparing my paper and need your two books The Western Art History and The Famous Arts urgently. It happens that you are not at the dormitory. So I have to take them by myself. May I keep it for several days? I’ll bring them back as soon as possible when I’ve finished my paper.

Yours sincerely,

Simon

Section A  Composition

Graduation, Synonym of Unemployment?

Nowadays it’s often heard that graduation is the synonym of unemployment. The hope of obtaining a decent job becomes slimmer and slimmer. A deep anxiety thus arises and casts the graduates into a sea of melancholy(忧郁，悲哀). Quite a lot of students worry about their future, which has caught the society’s great attention.

No doubt today’s labor market is not what it was years ago. We must have a clear understanding of the changes in the situation and make a corresponding shift of our psychology and expectation. There’s no job that is valueless and neither rhyme nor reason (there’s no rhyme or reason to/for sth; without rhyme or reason毫无道理；无规律可循；莫名其妙). With a sober mind we start our career and a great pickup is waiting for us.

God helps those who help themselves. There’re plenty of opportunities in our society, but only those who are prepared adequately and qualified highly can make use of them to achieve their purpose. Chance favors the minds that are prepared. Somewhere under the stars God has a job for us to do, and nobody else can do it and it’s really worthwhile and it pays off(to be successful and bring good results). Some of us must find our place by trial and error. It can take time, with dead ends along the way. But we should not get discouraged just because others seem more skilled. Usually it’s not raw talent but drive that makes the difference. We must be the master of our fate and captain of our career ship.

Section B  Note-writing

April,2

Dear Roger,

It is really a pity that I didn’t meet you when I called on you. I wonder could you be kind enough to give me a hand in my computer installment. You know it is all a Greek to me and your aid is in great need. I will appreciate if you can give me a call tomorrow.

Yours sincerely,

Kevin

　　2008年的第一场雪来得太突然了，太猛了，持续的时间也太长了。这么大的雪，自己还是小时候见过、玩过，长大后见过雪是1992年在四川外语学院读大学本科二年级时，记得自己还和班上的同学到歌乐山上去堆雪人、玩雪仗；自己还照了雪景照片当作明信片寄给同学。可惜当时没有数码相机。

　　2008年的第一场雪来得太突然了，我们一点心理准备都没有。这场雪可谓是我女儿赵瑞熙生命中的第一场雪。本来应该带她出去看一看雪景，给她照几张照片，留个纪念什么的，但她年龄太小，才18个月，怕她受不了，冻着了。所以，整天只有待在家里，陪她玩，偶尔也教她几个英语单词、学学认数字，她妈妈也经常给她讲小故事。好象女儿也学到了许多东西。总之，这场大雪不仅给全国人民，尤其是给湖南、贵州、广州、重庆、江西等省市的人民带来了生活上的不便，甚至造成了雪灾，而且也给象我女儿一样的小朋友们带来诸多不便，使他们玩耍的时间、空间缩小了。

I am very sorry!

My dear friends,

      Wish you a happy Chinese New Year! Good luck to you and your family members!

Part VI Writing (25%)

Section A Composition(15%)

Sample A

Is It Wise to Make Friends Online?

Making friends online has increasingly grown in popularity in the last few years and now and then we hear some appalling stories of disasters as a result of it. As far as I am concerned, it is not wise to make friends online as there are potential dangers to it.

Some people’s dependence on online relationships can build up the risk of having potential psychological problems. People can be easily attracted to online life and those who are lonely, depressed or not sastified with their real life can easily develop an addiction to the “perfect” online life, as they can make up life stories. Too much addiction can gradually affect one’s abilities and functions in the real world. Gradually the addicts become isolated from others and unconcerned with people or events around them. In addition, cyber relationships have the magical power of destroying intimate relationships between family members and friendships that exist in real life. Teenagers of the generation of Instant Messaging are also too keen on their online friends to care about their relationships with their parents.

In conclusion, though people are finding it entertaining to make friends online, it does harm in deveral ways. Too much trust and dependence on cyber life can cause net addiction that may lead to several psychological disorders or physical problems. Moreover, realtionships in real life have been affected by online relationships. Extreme cases indicate the most dreadful consequences caused by cyber vriminals. As making friends online is still spreading its attractions, people need to be aware of these dangers and take proper actions to protect themselves and their life. (267 words)

Sample B

Is It Wise to Make Friends Online?

Everyone needs friends. No one can sail the ocean of life single-handed. But is it wise to make friends online? For my part, I would like to vote for making friends online.

Why I choose to make friends online? For one thing, when talking to friends online, we don’t have to care about our appearance and diction, we feel much more comfortable than talking in reality. We don’t know each other online and we can confide annoyance to them. And this time they are the best listeners, making us relaxed. For another, if we make good friends online we can broaden our knowledge about others’ culture, customs and conventions which we may not find in books. Meanwhile, we can improve our English if we make friends online with those who come from English-speaking countries. We have more opportunities to practice English in speaking, listening, reading, and writing.

For the reasons presented above, I commit to the notion that making friends online is good and wise.   (165 words)

Section B Note-Writing (10%)

November 18, 2007

Dear Jimmy,

Thank you for inviting me to join your club. But I’m sorry to tell you that I won’t be able to come because I joined the dancing club several weeks ago. I’ve attended a dancing class several times and I find it pretty good. Maybe when it’s over, I’ll come over and join you for swimming. Thank you again.

                                                     Yours,

                                                         James

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Mobile Phone

There is no denying that mobile phones have now become fashionable “pets”, especially among those young people. With the increasing demand for mobile phones, the manufacturers are now trying to make their products best in quality and novelty so as to benefit a lot from the potential market. While it brings great convenience to our daily life, the mobile phone sometimes proves a pest.

On the one hand, with the help of mobile phones, we can get in touch with each other whenever it is and wherever we are. When we find it hard to express ourselves in face-to-face communication, we can send messages through the mobile phone to show our love, to make apologies or express our best wishes. With advanced mobile phones, wishes can be sent in a vivid way with sounds and pictures. This, of course, adds color and convenience to our life. On the other hand, some students are so absorbed in playing mobile phone games that they are much less attentive in class and, accordingly, they are getting poorer and poorer in their work. What is worse, research has shown that radiation from mobile phones does great harm to human health, and this is a problem still to be solved.

In conclusion, despite its disadvantages, the mobile phone really contributes to interpersonal communication in the modern world. And we are expected to make the most of it.

How to Stay Healthy

With the development of the society, an increasing number of people have become concerned about how to stay healthy. In my opinion, the most essential point lies in keeping mentally healthy.

Admittedly, everyone needs sufficient as well as proper food for energy so as to keep him healthy. Though more and more people don’t have such problems any longer, they still feel unfit, just because they are not psychologically healthy. The pressure from work or study might make a person mentally exhausted, which surely will lead to the depression of his constitution, especially when he doesn’t have a proper attitude toward the world around him, neither does he know how to relieve himself. On the other hand, a person in good mental health is sure to lead a happy life, while the one who is mentally ill will lead a sad life. There have been a large number of examples of how an optimistic person has conquered cancer merely by his own will. That is to say to a certain extent, good mental health can be an effective cure of physical diseases.

In a word, besides managing to keep fit physically, we should adjust our mind to the environment around us as well. With good mental health, you can stay healthy and happy. (213 words)

On the Youth Crime

Nowadays, youth crime has become a hot issue in our society. There’s no doubt that it is a very tough problem. When we watch TV or listen to the radio or read the newspapers, we can find that the number of youth crime in China is rising. As far as I am concerned, the causes of the youth crime are related to two factors: the family background and the educational background.

As we all know, whether a child has a happy family or not has a deciding effect on shaping his personality. According to a report, the number of the young criminals from single-parent families or abnormal families is much greater than the number of those from happy and harmonious families. Therefore, it is necessary for parents to give their own children a warm and happy life. In addition, the educational background also plays an important role in the development of a child. It is known to all that a much greater number of crimes are committed by those poorly-educated people rather than by those who have received good education. Thus, both the school and the government should work hard to raise the legal awareness of the young people.

In a word, effective measures should be taken to prevent young people from committing crimes.  (214 words)

Cultural Adjustment

Living in a new culture can be exhilarating, personally rewarding, and intellectually stimulating. It can also be frustrating. It is one thing to visit a country, moving on when you have seen enough, and it is quite another to live there and function according to a different, and sometimes, mysterious set of norms. Participation in your chosen abroad program provides a rare opportunity for you to begin to know another society from within. But it involves certain responsibilities. The most obvious one is to adapt one's behavior to the customs and expectations of the host country. This is not to deny one's own culture but to respect that of others. Another, even more subtle, responsibility you have is to remain open in order to become aware of similarities and differences, to learn rather than to judge. This can be the most rewarding experience in your education.

Exploring Cultural Differences and Cross Cultural Adjustment.

Recent studies have shown that there are distinct phases of culture shock which virtually everyone who lives abroad goes through. Each phase has a number of characteristic features, one of which is usually predominant. These stages include:

Preliminary stage: This phase includes awareness of the host culture, preparation for the journey, farewell activities.

Initial euphoria: The initial euphoria phase begins with the arrival in the new country and ends when this excitement wears off.

Irritability: During the irritability phase you will be acclimating to your setting. This will produce frustration because of the difficulty in coping with the elementary aspects of everyday life when things still appear so foreign to you. Your focus will likely turn to the differences between the host culture and your home, and these differences can be troubling. Sometimes insignificant difficulties can seem like major problems. One typical reaction against culture shock is to associate mainly with other North Americans, but remember, you are going abroad to get to know the host country, its people, culture, and language. If you avoid contact with nationals of the host country, you cheat yourself and lengthen the process of adaptation.

Gradual adjustment: When you become more used to the new culture, you will slip into the gradual adjustment stage. You may not even be aware that this is happening. You will begin to orient yourself and to be able to interpret subtle cultural clues. The culture will become familiar to you.

Adaptation and biculturalism: Eventually you will develop the ability to function in the new culture. Your sense of "foreignness" diminishes significantly. And not only will you be more comfortable with the host culture, but you may also feel a part of it. Once abroad, you can take some steps to minimize emotional and physical ups and downs. Try to establish routines that incorporate both the difficult and enjoyable tasks of the day or week. Treat yourself to an occasional indulgence such as a USA magazine or newspaper, a favorite meal or beverage, or a long talk with other Americans experiencing the same challenges. Keep yourself healthy through regular exercise and eating habits. Accept invitations to activities that will allow you to see areas of the host culture outside the university and meet new people. Above all try to maintain your sense of humor.

Re-entry phase: The re-entry phase occurs when you return to your homeland. For some, this can be the most painful phase of all. You will be excited about sharing your experiences, and you will realize that you have changed, although you may not be able to explain how. One set of values has long been instilled in you, another you have acquired in the host country. Both may seem equally valid.

Here are some general tips for traveling and interacting with foreign cultures, which, if kept in mind, may help ease cultural adjustment:

Travel in a spirit of humility and with a genuine desire to meet and talk with local people.

Do not expect to find things as you have them at home . . . for you have left your home to find things different.

Do not take anything too seriously . . . for an open mind is the beginning of a fine international experience.

Do not let others get on your nerves . . . for you have come a long way to learn as much as you can, to enjoy the experience, and to be a good ambassador for your country.

Read carefully the information in your Student Guide and from your program . . . those who have gone before you have good advice to share.

Do not worry . . . for one who worries has no pleasure.

Remember your passport so that you know where it is at all times . . . a person without a passport is a person without a country.

Do not judge the people of a country by the one person with whom you have had trouble . . . for this is unfair to the people as a whole.

You shall remember that you are a guest in every land . . . for one who treats a host with respect will be treated as an honored guest.

Cultivate the habit of listening and observing, rather than merely seeing or hearing.

Realize that other people may have thought patterns and concepts of time which are very different than yours -- not inferior, just different.

Be aware of the feelings of local people to prevent what might be offensive behavior. For example, photography must be particularly respectful of persons.

Make no promises to local, new friends that you cannot implement or carry through.

Spend time reflecting on you daily experiences in order to deepen your understanding of your experiences.

If you have the opportunity to participate in a homestay in your host country, it can be an eye-opening experience. Remember that families come in all shapes and sizes -- no matter where you are in the world.

Your experience will depend as much on your cooperation, good will and courtesy as it does on the family's. While your family may be paid a small stipend for your room and board, no amount of money can adequately compensate them if they receive a "bad" student. You are a guest, even a boarder, and they will probably appreciate it if you: Bring a gift. Something that represents your home institution, your hometown or state is almost always well received. See the section on gifts in the Packing section. Help out with daily household tasks, such as washing the dishes. Ask permission to use the telephone and pay adequately for your calls. Remember that many host country telephone systems charge per "click" for telephone usage. This is very different, and more expensive, than the USA method of a monthly charge that covers local calls. Do not raid the refrigerator without express permission. Do not use excessive amounts of hot water. Water is a precious and expensive commodity in many countries and cultures. Be receptive to activities planned by your host family. Your homestay family and program leaders may well make arrangements to show you interesting sites in the area, but this may not always be possible during their work week. You should relax and be yourself. Try to be flexible and fit in with the family's routine. If you are unsure, try to take your cues from the family and ask polite questions. By all means, feel free to write or call your homestay family after your homestay is over. They will be interested in hearing about your studies and further adventures.

Keep these thoughts in mind as you travel to your host country(ies). The culture(s) to which you are going are different from the one(s) you know for some very good reasons, regardless of whether they are immediately visible to you or not. Moreover, it is for precisely this reason -- to study the differences between the two cultures -- that you are going abroad. So go there with an open mind, be prepared to change, and make the most of this experience!

Culture Shock & The Problem Of Adjustment To New Cultural Environments

(An editorial by Dr. Lalervo Oberg; Anthropologist; Health, Welfare and Housing Division; United States Operations Mission to Brazil)

I would like to make a few remarks about culture shock, a malady which afflicts most of us to some degree. We might almost call culture shock an occupational disease of many people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad.

Customs, Cues, Norms

Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. These signs are the thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves to the situations of daily life: when to shake hands and what to say when we meet people, when and how to give tips, how to give orders to servants, how to make purchases, when to accept and when to refuse invitations, when to take statements seriously and when not.

These cues, which may be words, gestures, facial expressions, customs, or norms are acquired by all of us in the course of growing up and are as much a part of our culture as the language we speak or the beliefs we accept. All of us depend for our peace of mind and our efficiency on hundreds of these cues, most of which are unconsciously learned.

When an individual enters a strange culture, all or most of these familiar cues are removed. He or she is like a fish out of water. No matter how broad-minded or full of good will he may be, a series of props have been knocked from under him. This is followed by a feeling of frustration and anxiety. People react to the frustration in much the same way. First they reject the environment which causes the discomfort: "the ways of the host country are bad because they make us feel bad."

For example Americans who are in a strange land get together to grouse about the host country and its people, you can be sure they are suffering from culture shock.

Another phase of culture shock is regression. The home environment suddenly assumes a tremendous importance, everything becomes irrationally glorified. All difficulties and problems are forgotten and only the good things back home are remembered. It usually takes a trip home to bring one back to reality.

Symptoms

Some of the symptoms of culture shock are: excessive concern over cleanliness and the feeling that what is new and strange is "dirty." This could be in relation to drinking water, food, dishes, and bedding; fear of physical contact with attendants or servants; a feeling of helplessness and a desire for dependence on long-term residents of one's own nationality; irritation over delays and other minor frustrations out of proportion to their causes; delay and outright refusal to learn the language of the host country; excessive fear of being cheated, robbed, or injured; great concern over minor pains and irruptions of the skin; and finally, that terrible longing to be back home, to be in familiar surroundings, to visit one's relatives, and, in general, to talk to people who really "make sense."

Individuals differ greatly in the degree in which culture shock affects them. Although not common, there are individuals who cannot live in foreign countries. Those who have seen people go through a serious case of culture shock and on to a satisfactory adjustment can discern steps in the process.

The Honeymoon Stage

During the first few weeks most individuals are fascinated by the new. They stay in hotels and associate with nationals who speak their language and are polite and gracious to foreigners. This honeymoon stage may last from a few days or weeks to six months depending on circumstances. If one is a very important person he or she will be taken to the show places, pampered and petted, and in a press interview will speak glowingly about progress, goodwill, and international amity. If he returns home may well write a book about his pleasant if superficial experience abroad.

But this "Cook's tour" type of mentality does not normally last if the foreign visitor remains abroad and has to seriously cope with real conditions of life. It is then that the second stage begins, characterized by a hostile and aggressive attitude towards the host country. This hostility evidently grows out of the genuine difficulty which the visitor experiences in the process of adjustment. There is maid trouble, school trouble, language trouble, house trouble, transportation trouble, shopping trouble, and the fact that people in the host country are largely indifferent to all these troubles. They help but they just don't understand your great concern over these difficulties. Therefore, they must be insensitive and unsympathetic to you and your worries. The result, "I just don't like them." You become aggressive, you band together with your fellow countrymen and criticize the host country, its ways and its people.

This criticism is not an objective appraisal but a derogatory one. Instead of trying to account for conditions as they are through an honest analysis of the actual conditions and the historical circumstances which have created them, you talk as if the difficulties you experience are more or less created by the people of the host country for your special discomfort. You take refuge in the company of your countrymen and this cocktail circuit becomes the fountainhead of emotionally charged labels knows as stereotypes. This is a peculiar kind of shorthand which caricatures the host country and its people in a negative manner.

Stereotypes

The "dollar grasping American" and the "indolent Latin American" are samples of mild forms of stereotypes. The use of stereotypes may salve the ego of someone with a severe case of culture shock but it certainly does not lead to any genuine understanding of the host country and its people. This second stage of culture shock is in a sense a crisis in the disease. If you overcome it you stay, if not, you leave before you reach the stage of a nervous breakdown.

Culture shock is lessened as the visitor succeeds in getting some knowledge of the language and begins to get around by himself. This is the beginning of his adjustment to the new cultural environment. The visitor still has difficulties but he takes a "this is my cross and I have to bear it" attitude. Usually in this stage the visitor takes a superior attitude toward people of the host country. His sense of humor begins to exert itself. Instead of criticizing he makes jokes about the people and even cracks jokes about his or her own difficulties. He or she is now on the way to recovery. And there is still the poor devil who is worse off than yourself whom you can help, which in turn gives you confidence in your ability to speak and get around.

Final adjustment

In the final stage of adjustment the visitor accepts the customs of the country as just another way of living. He can operate within the new milieu without a feeling of anxiety although there are moments of strain. Only with a complete grasp of all the cues of social intercourse will this strain disappear.

For a long time the individual will understand what the national is saying, but he is not always sure what the national means. With a complete adjustment you not only accept the foods, drinks, habits, and customs but actually begin to enjoy them. When you go back home on leave you may even take things back with you and if you leave for good you generally miss the country and the people to whom you have become accustomed.

It might be well to point out that the difficulties which the newcomer experiences are very real. If individuals come to a tropical area from a temperate one they quite often suffer from intestinal disturbances. Strange foods sometimes upset people. In Rio, for instance, water and power shortages are very real. When these physical difficulties are added to those arising from not knowing how to communicate and the uncertainties presented by customs the consequent frustrations and anxieties are understandable.

In the course of time, an individual makes this adjustment. You do what is essential about water, food, and the other minutiae of daily life. You adapt yourself to water and power shortages and to traffic problems. In short, the environment does not change. What has changed is your attitude towards it. Somehow it no longer troubles you, you no longer project your discomforts onto the people of the host country and their ways. You get along under a new set of living conditions.

Your attitude

Another important point worth considering is the attitude of others to a person suffering from culture shock. If you are frustrated and have an aggressive attitude to the people of the host country, they will sense this hostility and in many cases respond in either a hostile manner or try to avoid you. In other words, their response moves from a preliminary phase of ingratiation to aggressive ridicule and on to avoidance.

To your own countrymen who are well adjusted you become somewhat of a problem. As you feel weak in the face of the host country people you tend to wish to increase your dependence on your fellow countrymen much more than is normal. Some will try to help you, others will try to avoid you.

The better your fellow countryman understands your condition the better he is able to help you. But the difficulty is that culture shock has not been studied carefully enough for people to help you in an organized manner and you continue to be considered a bit queer - until you adjust yourself to the new situation.

Although I am not certain, I think culture shock affects wives more than husbands. The husband has his professional duties to occupy him and his activities may not differ too much from what he has been accustomed to. The wife, on the other hand, has to operate in an environment which differs much more from the milieu in which she grew up.

A product of history

In an effort to get over culture shock, I think there is value in knowing something about the nature of culture and its relationship to the individual. In addition to living in a physical environment, an individual lives in a cultural environment consisting of manmade physical objects, social institutions, and ideas and beliefs.

An individual is not born with culture but only with the capacity to learn it and use it. There is nothing in a new born child which dictates that it should eventually speak Portuguese, English, or French, nor that he eat with a fork in his left hand rather than in the right, or use chop sticks. All these things the child has to learn. Nor are the parents responsible for the culture which they transmit to their young. The culture of any people is the product of history and is built up over time largely through processes which are, as far as the individual is concerned, beyond his awareness. It is by means of culture that the young learn to adapt themselves to the physical environment and to the people with whom they associate.

As we know, children and adolescents often experience difficulties in this process of learning and adjustment. But once learned, culture becomes a way of life, the sure, familiar, largely automatic way of getting what you want from your environment and as such it also becomes a value.

People have a way of accepting their culture as both the best and the only way of doing things. This is perfectly normal and understandable. To this attitude we give the name ethnocentrism, a belief that not only the culture but the race and nation form the center of the world.

Individuals identify themselves with their own group and its ways to the extent that any critical comment is taken as an affront to the individual as well as to the group. If you criticize my country, you are criticizing me. If you criticize me, you are criticizing my country.

Along with this attitude goes the tendency to attribute all individual peculiarities as national characteristics. For instance, if an American does something odd or antisocial in a foreign country which back home would be considered a purely individual act, it is now considered a national trait.

Instead of being censured as an individual, his country is censured. It is best to recognize that ethnocentrism is a characteristic of national groups. If a national criticizes some aspect of his own culture, the foreigner should listen but not enter into the criticism.

The study of culture

Specific cultures are products of historical development. Brazil and the United States, for instance, have different cultural origins and different culture histories which account for present day differences.

In this case, however, the differences are not great, both cultures being parts of Western civilization. It might be useful to recognize here that the study of culture per se is not the study of individuals. Psychology is the study of individual personality. Sociology is the study of groups and group behaviors.

The student of culture studies not human individuals but the interrelationships of culture forms like technologies, institutions, idea and belief systems. Hi is interested not so much in the study of culture as such, but its impact upon the individual under special conditions.

Common elements

Any modern nation is a complex society with corresponding variations in culture. In composition it is made up of different ethnic groups, it is stratified into classes, it is differentiated into regions, it is separated into rural and urban settlements, each having its own distinctive cultural characteristics. Yet superimposed upon these differences are the common elements of official language, institutions, and customs which knit it together to form a nation.

These facts indicate that it is not a simple matter to acquaint oneself with the culture of a nation. Similarly the culture of one's own nation is complex. It too, differs by region and class.

Americans, for instance, who go abroad in various governmental and business capacities, are usually members of the middle class and carry the values and aspirations of this class, some of which are an accent on the practical or utilitarian - work as a means to personal success, and suspicion of personal authority.

Accustomed to working in large hierarchical institutions like business corporations, governmental agencies, or scientific foundations which have a life of their own and persist in time, Americans tend to become impersonal. Individuals no matter how able are replaceable parts in these large institutions.

A lack of understanding

An objective treatment of your cultural background and that of your new environment is important in understanding culture shock. There is a great difference in knowing what is the cause of your disturbance and not knowing.

Once you realize that your trouble is due to your own lack of understanding of other people's cultural background and your own lack of the means of communication rather than the hostility of an alien environment, you also realize that you yourself can gain this understanding and these means of communication. And the sooner you do this, the sooner culture shock will disappear.

The question now arises, what can you do to get over culture shock as quickly as possible? The answer is to get to know the people of that host country. But this you cannot do with any success without knowing the language, for language is the principal symbol system of communication.

We all know that learning a new language is difficult, particularly to adults. This task alone is quite enough to cause frustration and anxiety, no matter how skillful the language teacher.

But once you begin to be able to carry on a friendly conversation with your maid, your neighbor, or to go on shopping trips alone, you not only gain confidence and a feeling of power but a whole new world of cultural meanings open up for you. You begin to find out not only what and how people do things but also what their interests are.

These interests people usually express by what they habitually talk about and how they allocate their time and money. Once you know this value or interest pattern it will be quite easy to get people to talk and to be interested in you. When we say people have no interests we usually admit the fact that we have not bothered to find out.

At times it is helpful to be a participant observer by joining the activities of the people. This could be a carnival, a religious rite, or some economic activity. Yet the visitor should never forget that he or she is an outsider and will be treated as such. He should view this participation as role playing.

Understanding the ways of the people is essential but this does not mean that you have to give up on your own. What happens is that you have developed two patterns of behavior.

The source of pain

Finally a word on what your fellow countrymen can do to help you get over culture shock. Persons suffering from culture shock feel weak in the face of conditions which appear insufferable and it is natural for them to try to lean heavily on their compatriots.

This may be irritating to the long-term resident, but he should be patient, sympathetic, and understanding. Although talking does not remove pain, a great deal is gained by having the source explained.

Some of the steps toward a cure have been indicated. With patience and understanding, we can be reasonably sure that time, the great healer, will soon set things right.

Preserving Animal Culture

Emily Gertz

October 21, 2004 11:00 AM

As Alex wrote in August, a couple British conservation groups announced plans for a Frozen Ark, containing the DNA of animal species that are on the verge of extinction.

Admirably, these groups stress that this is just to save the genomes for future study--not to regenerate some long-lost fauna in a more wildlife-friendly future. But it's tempting. There is something almost calming in thinking that with a little more application of our big evolved brains, a little more Enlightenment elbow grease, we can sidestep both culpability and the stress of the fundamental social and economic changes (however bright-greener things will be on the other side) that will go along with preserving endangered species.

But what makes an animal is not all stored in the double helix. This was brought home to me in a new way as I listened to Susan McCarthy speak at the American Museum of Natural History this past Tuesday evening. She's the author of Becoming a Tiger: How Baby Animals Learn to Live in the Wild. As she explained what a tiger cub learns from how Momma Tiger deals with hunting, reacts to what she hears, sees and smells, how she vocalizes, it came clear that reconstituting a tiger from saved genetic material would not restore the tiger's culture.

Susan McCarthy told Salon,

[There is] a very interesting way in which innate stuff and learned stuff interact. The little cats we live with and the big cats that live in the wild, like the tigers, have hard-wired behaviors involving being interested in little sneaking, scuttling things. They crouch, stalk, sneak up and pounce. But it's really quite another matter to put that together into a whole suite of behaviors where you've identified creatures that are good to eat and not fatal to attack, and then put all those behaviors together, and actually kill the animal, and kill prey often enough to make a living.

There's a story of the orphaned lion who was raised by rangers in a South African game preserve, and who took as his role model their Australian cattle dog. And was very, very interested in wild antelope and learned to herd them.

His interest in wild antelope was hard-wired. He had lots of innate behaviors, like sneaking, crouching and pouncing. But he had no idea at whom to direct that, so he pounced on his friends when he was playing with them -- the dog and the people. He was very interested in impalas, but the dog, his role model, herded them, so he herded them, too. Not a good way for a lion to make a living.

Decades of limited progress on saving wild animals and habitat suggest that the notion of intrinsic value is a nonstarter for most people, and that we're better off--from a conservation perspective--in affirming people's instinctual understanding that there is some sort of utility to humanity in preserving these species. I came away from Susan McCarthy's talk encouraged that in comparing our mutual habits of learning, there may be more opportunities to bridge the gap between human and animal needs.

I can easily imagine some sectors latching on to Frozen Zooz as a way to weasel out of the hard work of stopping the sixth great extinction--preserving habitat, transforming agricultural practices, creating economic justice, curbing global warming, and more.

McCarthy's exploration of animal culture shows that there's more to it than a sequenced genome.

Non Human Animals Have Intelligence, Culture, Emotion, Compassion and Language

Intelligence

Interesting but not voluminous literature on variation in animal general intelligence.

Mirror test implies elephants self-aware

http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20061030/ap_on_sc/self_aware_elephant

If you're Happy and you know it, pat your head. That, in a peanut shell, is how a 34-year-old female Asian elephant in the Bronx Zoo showed researchers that pachyderms can recognize themselves in a mirror — complex behavior observed in only a few other species.

The test results suggest elephants — or at least Happy — are self-aware. The ability to distinguish oneself from others had been shown only in humans, chimpanzees and, to a limited extent, dolphins.

That self-recognition may underlie the social complexity seen in elephants, and could be linked to the empathy and altruism that the big-brained animals have been known to display, said researcher Diana Reiss, of the Wildlife Conservation Society, which manages the Bronx Zoo.

In a 2005 experiment, Happy faced her reflection in an 8-by-8-foot mirror and repeatedly used her trunk to touch an "X" painted above her eye. The elephant could not have seen the mark except in her reflection. Furthermore, Happy ignored a similar mark, made on the opposite side of her head in paint of an identical smell and texture, that was invisible unless seen under black light.

" t seems to verify for us she definitely recognized herself in the mirror," said Joshua Plotnik, one of the researchers behind the study. Details appear this week on the Web site of the Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences.

Still, two other zoo elephants, Maxine and Patty, failed to touch either the visible or invisible "X" marks on their heads in two runs of the experiment. But all three adult female elephants at the zoo behaved while in front of the jumbo mirror in ways that suggested they recognized themselves, said Plotnik, a graduate student at Emory University in Atlanta.

Maxine, for instance, used the tip of her trunk to probe the inside of her mouth while facing the mirror. She also used her trunk to slowly pull one ear toward the mirror, as if she were using the reflection to investigate herself. The researchers reported not seeing that type of behavior at any other time.

"Doing things in front of the mirror: that spoke volumes to me that they were definitely recognizing themselves," said Janine Brown, a research physiologist and elephant expert at the Smithsonian National Zoological Park in Washington. She was not connected with the study but expressed interest in conducting follow-up research.

Gordon Gallup, the psychologist who devised the mark test in 1970 for use on chimps, called the results "very strong and very compelling." But he said additional studies on both elephants and dolphins were needed.

"They really need to be replicated in order to be able to say with any assurance that dolphins and elephants indeed as species are capable of recognizing themselves. Replication is the cornerstone of science," said Gallup, a professor at the State University of New York at Albany, who provided advice to the researchers.

The three Bronx Zoo elephants did not display any social behavior in front of the mirror, suggesting that each recognized the reflected image as itself and not another elephant. Many other animals mistake their mirror reflections for other creatures.

That divergent species such as elephants and dolphins should share the ability to recognize themselves as distinct from others suggests the characteristic evolved independently, according to the study.

Elephants and mammoths, now extinct, split from the last common ancestor they shared with mastodons, also extinct, about 24 million years ago. In a separate study also appearing this week on the scientific journal's Web site, researchers report finding fossil evidence of an older species that links modern elephants to even older ancestors.

The likely "missing link" is a 27 million-year-old jaw fossil, found in Eritrea.

Apes Able to Think Ahead

Humans show remarkable foresight. From storing food to carrying tools, we can imagine, prepare for and, ultimately, steer the course of the future. Although many animals hoard food or build shelters, there is scant evidence that they ponder the long-term ramifications of their actions or the future more generally. But new research hints that our ape brethren may share our ability to think ahead.

Nicholas Mulcahy and Josep Call of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig tested whether our closest great ape relative--the bonobo--and our most distant--the orangutan--share our ability to plan for the future. The researchers first trained five bonobos and five orangutans to use a tool to get a fruit treat from a mechanical apparatus. They then blocked access to the treat but allowed the apes to handle suitable and unsuitable tools for the task before ushering them into a waiting room for an hour. After that hour, they were brought back into the first room and, if they had brought the right tool, they could use it to get the treat.

The apes both took a suitable tool out of the test room and brought it back in with them after the waiting period significantly more often than predicted by chance. A female orangutan named Dokana proved particularly adept, completing the task successfully in 15 out of 16 attempts. Even when the delay time was extended through the night--14 hours--Dokana succeeded in garnering the tool and the fruit more than half of the time. A bonobo named Kuno did even better with the long delay than the short one, completing the task in eight out of 12 attempts.

To determine whether the apes were simply associating the tool with the food reward, or whether they were actively planning ahead, the researchers devised two more tests. In the first, two of the bonobos and two of the orangutans faced a similar challenge but with only juice as a reward--to discount for the possibility that the apes had taken the right tool previously simply because they were currently hungry. Again, the apes proved capable.

Finally, some nave apes were presented with tools but not the mechanical apparatus. If they brought back the right tool they were still rewarded with a treat. But most did not, seemingly disproving a simple associative link between the tool and the treat. "Apes selected, transported and saved a suitable tool not because they currently needed it but because they would need it in the future," the authors write in the paper presenting the research in today's Science.

That bonobos and orangutans can plan ahead suggests that the ability evolved in the great apes prior to 14 million years ago rather than in our hominid forebearers within the past 2.5 million years, the scientists note. And other creatures may have undergone convergent cognitive evolution. Indeed, another study published online yesterday by Science found that scrub jays hid and re-hid food depending on whether they were watched by other birds. -- David Biello

Dolphins Name Themselves With Whistles, Study Says James Owen May 8, 2006

 Dolphins give themselves "names"distinctive whistles that they use to identify each other, new research shows. Scientists say it's the first time wild animals have been shown to call out their own names. What's more, the marine mammals can recognize individual names even when the sound is produced by an unfamiliar voice.

Counting lions roar for help - Source

The nature of intelligence

The g factor in non-human animals. Anderson, B. (2000). In G. R. Bock, J. A. Goode, & K. Webb (Eds.), (pp. 79-95). New York: Wiley.

These studies show that there are individual differences in the ability to solve novel problems--problems requiring the ability to "combine non-contiguously learned behaviors into a solution for a novel problem" (p. 81). Anderson extracted a single factor from three such tests and showed performance on the tests was positively correlated with brain size (also known to correlate with general intelligence in humans).

Intelligence and solving problems among ravens: Heinrich, B. (2000). Testing insight in ravens.

Human general intelligence evolved as an ability underlying solving novel problems: Chiappe, D., & MacDonald, K. B. (2003, Oct.). The Evolution of Domain-General Mechanisms in Intelligence and Learning. In C. Heyes and L. Huber (Eds.), The evolution of cognition (pp. 289-305). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Birds Gain Respect 2/1/05

Birdbrain has long been a colloquial term of ridicule. The common notion is that birds' brains are simple, or so scientists thought and taught for many years. But that notion has increasingly been called into question as crows and parrots, among other birds, have shown what appears to be behavior as intelligent as that of chimpanzees.

Parrot Proves It's No Birdbrain Jul. 20, 2005

http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,68226,00.html  

At the ripe age of 29, Intelligent Alex has mastered important tasks like counting to six, understanding that corn is yellow, and knowing the differences among a variety of shapes. Call him a birdbrain if you must; he'll probably take it as a compliment. This is because Alex, an African gray parrot, is a prime example of birds' abilities to exhibit higher brain functions than humans usually give them credit for.

Evolution: On the Evolution of Bird Intelligence

http://scienceweek.com/2006/sw060113-4.htm

The following points are made by N.J. Emery and N.S. Clayton (Current Biology 2005 15:R946)

1) In Western society, the term "bird brain" is often used as a

derogatory term for a person of diminished intellect, partly because many people tend to think of birds as pecking machines, responding reflexively to stimuli in their environment, and partly because birds seem so different from us, with their beady eyes and small heads. But over 40 years ago William Thorpe, who was the leading authority on bird learning at that time, pointed out: The poor development in birds of any brain structures clearly corresponding to the cerebral cortex of mammals led to the assumption among neurologists not only that birds are primarily creatures of instinct, but also that they are very little endowed with the ability to learn...This misconceived view of brain mechanisms hindered the development of experimental studies on bird learning .

  2) In the 1960s little was known about the cognitive capacities of birds, but recent studies lend support for Thorpe's view: we now know that some bird species make and use tools, can count, remember specific past events and reason about the mental states of individuals, behaviors that some have considered to be unique to humans. Despite the apparent cognitive similarity between humans and some birds, neuroscientists have tended to view bird brains as interesting curiosities with little relevance to the workings of the human brain. Recently, however, the Avian Brain Nomenclature Consortium published a series of papers attempting to re-address the issue of the importance of the bird brain to neuroscience by investigating how the avian brain evolved, how the structure of the avian brain relates to that of the mammalian brain, and how names have had a negative influence on how birds are perceived.

3) Negativity surrounding the avian brain began in the late 19th century, when Ludwig Edinger provided names for the various parts of the vertebrate brain. His form of nomenclature was based on the nave view that evolution occurs in a linear progression, so that each new species is an elaboration of an older species. This "scala naturae" is often represented as a ladder. With respect to intelligence, Arthur Jensen, one of the key recent figures in studies of human intelligence, has argued that single-cell protozoans, such as amoeba, rank at the bottom of the scale, followed in order by the invertebrates, the lower vertebrates, the lower mammals... and finally the primates, in order: New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, the apes, and at the pinnacle, humans.

4) With respect to brain evolution, Edinger applied this scala naturae suggesting that the brains of living vertebrates retained ancestral structures, but that new brain areas were added onto older ones, or older areas increased in size and complexity to form new areas.  According to this view, evolutionarily older brains are simple, and so produce simple instinctive behavior, and evolutionarily newer brains are complex, and therefore can control learned and intelligent behavior. The oldest brain regions -- those present in all vertebrates -- were prefixed with the term "paleo-", the next oldest brain regions were given the prefix "archi-", whereas the new brain regions -- those present in the species closest to the top of the "ladder" -- were assigned the prefix "neo-".

5) We now know that, as with other parts of the body, the brains of distantly related species tend to be derived from the same basic elements found in the common ancestor -- they exhibit homology. So although the common ancestor of birds and mammals lived approximately 300 million years ago, studies of extant reptiles have revealed that the reptilian (therapsid and sauropsid) forebrain is pallial in origin, and so the common ancestor should also have shared this trait. If so, then the forebrain of modern birds and mammals will also be pallial. This seems to be the case.[1-5]

References (abridged):

1. Avian Brain Nomenclature Consortium, (2005). Avian brains and a new  understanding of vertebrate brain evolution. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6,151-159

2. Emery, N.J. (2005). Cognitive ornithology: The evolution of avian intelligence. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lon. Biol. Sci., in press

3. Emery, N.J. and Clayton, N.S. (2004). The mentality of crows:convergent evolution of intelligence in corvids and apes. Science 306, 1903-1907

4. Pepperberg, I.M. (1999). The Alex Studies: Cognitive and

communicative abilities of grey parrots. Harvard University Press,Cambridge, MA

5. Reiner, A., Perkel, D.J., Bruce, L.L., Butler, A.B., Csillag, A., Kuenzel, W., Medina, L., Paxinos, G., Shimizu, T., Striedter, G. et al. (2004). Revised nomenclature for avian telencephalon and some related brainstem nuclei. J. Comp. Neurol. 473, 377-414 Current Biology http://www.current-biology.com

Related Material:ON TOOL-MAKING BY CROWS

Notes by ScienceWeek: In this context, a "stepped tool" is a tapered tool whose tapering involves a series of steps that sequentially narrow the short-axis diameter to make the tool end in a point.

The following points are made by G.R. Hunt et al (Nature 2001

414:707):

1) New Caledonian crows fashion tapered tools from either the left or the right edge of the long narrow leaves of pandanus trees or screw pines, the crows using the tools to extract invertebrates in rainforest vegetation. Although right-handedness is thought to be uniquely human, the authors demonstrate that crows from different localities display a widespread laterality in making their tools, indicating that this behavior is unlikely to be attributable to local social traditions or ecological factors. The authors state that to their knowledge this is the first demonstration of a species-level

laterality in manipulatory skills outside humans.

2) The use of left or right leaf-edges by crows depends in part on the direction in which the leaves spiral. Clockwise- spiraling leaves provide easier access to left edges, and anti-clockwise spiraling provide easier access to right edges. This access effect was overridden, however, by an island-wide preference for manufacturing tools from left edges.

3) It has been proposed that right-handedness in humans may be a consequence of the evolution of language, which is also predominantly left-hemispheric. The authors suggest their results favor the more general possibility that species-level lateralization is an adaptation for the efficient neural programming of complex sequential processing, of which language and right-handedness in humans, and stepped-tool

manufacture in crows are examples.

Nature http://www.nature.com/nature

Related Material:

NATURAL HISTORY: ON THE MAGNETIC COMPASS OF SONGBIRDS

The following points are made by W.W. Cochran et al (Science 2004 304:405):

1) Billions of songbirds migrate between continents twice each year, but their orientation capabilities are almost exclusively studied in the laboratory. The authors presented birds with experimentally altered orientation cues and followed their subsequent migratory flights in the wild. Avian navigation capabilities are very precise

(1), with many individuals returning to the same breeding sites year after year (1-3) after a voyage of up to 25,000 km (4, ).

2) Migratory songbirds can orient on the basis of compass information from the sun and its associated polarized light patterns, the stars, the earth's magnetic field, and the memorization of spatial cues en route. However, the interactions and relative importance of these cues remain unclear and a source of much debate. Our knowledge about the orientation mechanisms of songbirds relies almost exclusively on data from cue-manipulated captive migrants tested in various orientation cages, on vanishing bearings based on the first few hundred meters of flight, and to a much lesser degree on field data (ringing and radar and visual observations) from unmanipulated natural migrants.

 3) On clear evenings, the authors fitted Catharus thrushes with radio transmitters and placed them in outdoor cages in an artificial eastward-turned magnetic field from about sunset until the sun was 11deg or more below the horizon when they were set free. The authors then radio-tracked the birds in flight to obtain heading data. Because Catharus thrushes do not compensate for wind drift but individuals maintain nearly constant preferred headings from night to night, the authors used measured headings for orientation analyses.

4) In summary: Night migratory songbirds can use stars, sun,

geomagnetic field, and polarized light for orientation when tested in captivity. The authors studied the interaction of magnetic, stellar, and twilight orientation cues in free-flying songbirds. The authors exposed Catharus thrushes to eastward-turned magnetic fields during the twilight period before takeoff and then followed them for up to 1100 kilometers. Instead of heading north, experimental birds flew westward. On subsequent nights, the same individuals migrated northward again. The authors suggest that birds orient with a magnetic compass calibrated daily from twilight cues, and that this could explain how birds cross the magnetic equator and deal with declination.

References (abridged):

1. P. Berthold, E. Gwinner, E. Sonnenschein, Eds., Avian Migration (Springer, Berlin, 2003)

2. J. P. Hoover, Ecology 84, 416 (2003)

3. P. O. Dunn, D. W. Winkler, Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B. 266, 2487 (1999)

4. D. C. Outlaw, et al., Auk 120, 299 (2003)

5. W. L. Engels, Biol. Bull. 123, 94 (1962)

Science http://www.sciencemag.org

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Full Text at Nature

Chimps can use tools to help them find food - and then teach these tricks to each other. Chimps can not only use tools, but also seem to follow the fashion in how they are used.

Researchers have found that a group of chimpanzees will stick to the same method used by their peers, even if they stumble across a different way of using a tool by themselves. That shows that chimps follow a cultural norm that is socially learned and maintained, the researchers say - proof, perhaps, that chimpanzees really do have culture. Chimpanzees are known to have many complex behaviours, including tool use and grooming, that place them second only to humans. Scientists have long assumed that chimpanzee populations maintain such traditions the same way humans do: by learning to imitate each other.

2 January 2003 Orangutans Said to Exhibit Hallmarks of Culture By CAROL KAESUK YOON Full text

Orangutans, those red-haired knuckle-dragging apes, are loping today into the upper echelons of the primate hierarchy. According to research reported in the journal Science, they exhibit what was until very recently considered a uniquely human attribute, culture. Drawing on years of research and thousands of hours of observations from six sites in the wild, an international team of scientists found evidence that orangutan groups differ across a spectrum from bedtime rituals to eating habits to sexual practices, patterns of behavior learned from being around others in a group that scientists call culture. Other researchers said four years ago that chimpanzees also exhibited widespread cultural differences, for example, in how they groom, hunt, eat and so on. Scientists say that the new work suggests that the two remaining great-ape species, gorillas and bonobos, are highly likely to have culture, as well, and that great-ape culture dates from at least the group's origin 14 million years ago.

Study Suggests Orangutans Are Cultured Full Text

WASHINGTON (AP) -- Some orangutan parents teach their offspring to use leaves as napkins. Others say good night with a spluttering, juicy raspberry. And still others get water from a hole by dipping a branch and then licking the leaves. These are examples, researchers say, that prove the orangutan is a cultured ape, able to learn new living habits and to pass them along to the next generation. The discovery, reported in a study appearing Friday in the journal Science, suggests that early primates, which include the ancestors of humans, may have developed the ability to invent new behaviors, such as tool use, as early as 14 million years ago. That would be some 6 million years earlier than once believed.

Rethinking Primate Aggression

Researcher Frans de Waal shows that apes (and humans) get along better than we thought "Chimpanzees have something like ‘community concern,'" he says. "They live in a group and they have to get along, and their life is going to be better if their community is better." In the end, de Waal believes, the evolution of humans and other primates may point more toward such altruism and cooperation than a ruthless survival of the fittest.

Animal Behavior, and Animal-Human communications have provided insight into the capabilities of these animals to talk and to understand.

The adroit selection of the appropriate lexigrams in correct syntax by a chimp called Lana, as well as the simian's desire for new lexigrams for items not originally programmed into the computer, led to Rumbaugh's confident conclusion (1984) that apes learn language in a meaningful way (Craighead-George, 1985).

Monkey Talk by Rachel Jones 2/5/03

http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nrn/journal/v4/n2/full/nrn1043_fs.html

Claims that a pygmy chimp called Kanzi has developed the ability to talk hit the headlines around the world when they were published in the New Scientist (UK 2 January 2003). Although the BBC Online maintained an air of quiet scepticism - "Ape 'learns to talk'" - others were more enthusiastic, with the Times of India (2 January 2003) proclaiming "Speaking chimpanzee leaves experts amazed".

The researchers working with Kanzi, Jared Taglialatela and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh of Georgia State University, claim that the chimp spontaneously started making four distinct sounds, corresponding to the words 'banana', 'grapes', 'juice' and 'yes'. Kanzi, like other primates, can communicate by pointing at symbols - but this is the first report of an ape making sounds that have distinct meanings across different situations. According to the Straits Times (Singapore 3 January 2003), the claims "...challenge the long-held belief that apes have no language ability."

As the New Zealand Herald (4 January 2003) points out, scientists disagree over what constitutes 'language'. "Some linguists believe that even symbolic communication, which many chimps achieve, qualifies as language, but many now say some mastery of syntax is also required." In the New Scientist, Frans de Waal of Emory University spoke for the primatology community when he said, " Sometimes we feel it's a bit unfair that [linguists] move the goalposts as soon as we get near."

If the claims hold up, Kanzi will become as famous as Washoe, the chimp who first learned American Sign Language. Primatologist John Mitani of the University of Michigan commented, "There have to be evolutionary precursors to what we do. We are beginning to find them in the primate world." (New Zealand Herald).

Lab chimp speaks his own language 10:15 02 January 03 Exclusive from New Scientist

http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993218

A bonobo has surprised his trainers by appearing to make up his own " words". It is the first report of an ape making sounds that seem to hold their meaning across different situations, and the latest challenge to the orthodox view that animals do not have language.Kanzi is an adult bonobo kept at Georgia State University in Atlanta. He has grown up in captivity among humans, and is adept at communicating with symbols. He also understands some spoken English, and can respond to phrases such as "go out of the cage" and "do you want a banana?"Jared Taglialatela and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, who work with Kanzi, noticed that he was making gentle noises during his interactions with them. "We wanted to know if there was any rhyme or reason to when they were produced," says Taglialatela.So his team studied 100 hours of videotape showing Kanzi's day-to-day interactions and analysed the sounds he made at various times. They picked situations in which the bonobo's actions were unambiguous: for example, while he was eating a banana, pointing to the symbol for "grapes", or responding to a request to go outside by leaving the cage.They identified four sounds that Kanzi made in different contexts - banana, grapes, juice and yes. In each of these contexts, Kanzi made the same sound. "We haven't taught him this," says Taglialatela. "He's doing it on his own."

University chimp amazes scientists with own 'words' By David Derbyshire, Science Correspondent Full story

A chimpanzee has challenged the widely held view that animals do not have language by making up its own words from scratch. Kanzi, an adult bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee kept at Georgia State University, Atlanta, has come up with four distinct sounds for the things closest to his heart - banana, juice, grapes and yes. Although the choice of words may be a little predictable, it is the first report of an ape making sounds that seem to have the same meaning across different situations.

Ape 'learns to talk' Full text Wednesday, 1 January, 2003,

A chimp who has grown up among humans may have developed the ability to talk,claims a research team from the US. The findings, published in New Scientist magazine, may come under fire from other scientists. But they may further challenge the long-held belief that apes have no language ability. Kanzi, an adult pygmy chimp, is kept at Georgia State University in Atlanta, and, like many other primates, can communicate by pointing at symbols. However, researchers recently noticed that he was also making gentle noises while he interacted with humans. By studying many hours of videotape, Dr Jared Taglialatela and Dr Sue Savage-Rumbaugh spotted four distinct sounds that accompanied particular actions, corresponding to "banana", "grapes", "juice" and "yes". Even in different contexts, the chimp made the same sound.

"The Last Great Ape"

http://www.pbs.org/nova/bonobos

With its intelligent gaze, humanlike posture, and peaceful nature, it's no wonder the bonobo, one of five great apes, reminds us of ourselves. But while we share a common hominoid ancestor with bonobos as well as 98 percent of our DNA, this unique primate has been largely overlooked by all but a few scientists. Bonobos live in a region that has been consumed by war, which threatens their habitat and survival. Can we learn more about these intriguing, intelligent apes before it's too late? By interviewing leading experts and

traveling into the field, NOVA shines a spotlight on the

extraordinary behavior of the endangered bonobo.

Here's what you will find online:

The Bonobo in All of Us - Primatologist Frans de Waal on what the "make-love-not-war" primate tells us about ourselves

Read My Lips - See a slide show of bonobo gestures and facial expressions, and find out what they mean.

Kanzi the Bonobo - In this audio slide show, researcher Sue Savage-Rumbaugh describes one extraordinarily linguistic ape.

Our Family Tree - See (and hear) where you stand among the great apes in this audiovisual interactive.

Ancient Roots for an African Language? 'First language may have used clicks' October 2001

http://www.ananova.com/

Two scientists say a genetic study suggests the world's first language may have used clicks. Still found in parts of Africa, click languages rely on distinctive clicking sounds made by the tongue to form words. The US researchers say their study shows existing click speakers are genetically diverse, meaning their languages may be older than others. Click languages are still found in the Hadza tribe of Tanzania and the San groups of Botswana and Namibia.

Wednesday, 28 November, 2001, 20:07 GMT FULL TEXT

Ape brains show linguistic promise Three members of the family of great apes have a crucial speech-related brain feature previously thought unique to humans. This is the finding of a pair of researchers in Atlanta, Georgia, US, who carried out magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans on chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas.They say they were surprised no-one had looked for the crucial lopsided structure in great apes before. The discovery could imply that evolution of brain structures linked to speech began before the ancestors of humans and apes parted ways. Puzzling discrepancy Brodmann's area 44 is part of the Broca's area in the human brain.

Apes have same speech area in brain as humans By Steve Connor Science Editor 11/3001

Gorillas and chimpanzees possess a rudimentary speech centre within their brains that until now was thought to be unique to humans, scientists have found. Brain scans of the apes ­ man's closest living relatives ­ have revealed a small, lopsided structure buried in the front part of the head which in humans is critical for language. The structure, Brodmann's area 44, is part of the language centre known as Broca's area, and the scans reveal that it is larger and more developed in the left half of the ape's brain than in the right hemisphere ­ just as it is in humans. Claudio Cantalupo and William Hopkins, who conducted the study at the Yerkes Primate Research Centre at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, were surprised such a critical feature within the ape's brain had gone unnoticed.

Scientists Report Finding a Gene for Speech October 4, 2001 By NICHOLAS WADE

A team of geneticists and linguists say they have found a gene that underlies speech and language, the first to be linked to this uniquely human faculty. The discovery buttresses the idea that language is acquired and generated by specific neural circuitry in the brain,rather than by general brain faculties. The gene, which joins a handful known to affect human behavior, is of particular interest because its role is to switch on a cascade of other g